Persian Empires: Achaemenid, Parthian, Sassanid
Achaemenid (550 - 330 B.C.E.)
The Achaemenid Empire extends from Egypt and Turkey across western Asia and to northern India. It was founded by Cyrus the Great in 550 B.C.E. when he conquered Iran. Cyrus the Great defeated the Babylonians (who were once his allies) in 539 BCE at Opis. Egypt, another ally, was later defeated by Cyrus the Great's son and successor, Cambyses.
Darius the Great gained power after the death of Cambyses. Under Darius' rule the empire was stable. Darius the Great built a network of roads and established a system of governors called satraps. He had two major construction projects. One was the construction of the royal buildings at Susa and the other was the capital and Persepolis. He lead the first Greco-Persian was in 498 B.C.E., after Ionian cities and Athens revolted, as well.
Xerxes, son and successor of Darius the Great, tried to conquer Greece. In 480 BC his forces defeated the Spartans at the Battle of Termopylae and sacked Athens. His army was defeated by Greece's navy in the Battle if Salamis in 479 B.C.E. and again in the Battle of Plataea. Xerxes was assassinated and Artaxerxes took his place.
Egypt claimed its independence under Artaxerxes II but his son/successor reconquered it. Darius III became ruler after Artaxerxes III & Artxerxes IV were assassinated. Darius was assassinated by one of his own generals, allowing Alexander the Great to conquer the Achaemenid Empire. The Achaemenid Empire had a centralized government under the various emperors' rule.
http://www2.uncp.edu/home/rwb/lecture_ancient_civ.htm
http://www.gnosis.us.com/category/art/artifacts/artifacts-by-civilization/middle-eastern-artifacts/top-ten-achaemenid-empire-artifacts/
http://www.iranchamber.com/history/achaemenids/
Darius the Great gained power after the death of Cambyses. Under Darius' rule the empire was stable. Darius the Great built a network of roads and established a system of governors called satraps. He had two major construction projects. One was the construction of the royal buildings at Susa and the other was the capital and Persepolis. He lead the first Greco-Persian was in 498 B.C.E., after Ionian cities and Athens revolted, as well.
Xerxes, son and successor of Darius the Great, tried to conquer Greece. In 480 BC his forces defeated the Spartans at the Battle of Termopylae and sacked Athens. His army was defeated by Greece's navy in the Battle if Salamis in 479 B.C.E. and again in the Battle of Plataea. Xerxes was assassinated and Artaxerxes took his place.
Egypt claimed its independence under Artaxerxes II but his son/successor reconquered it. Darius III became ruler after Artaxerxes III & Artxerxes IV were assassinated. Darius was assassinated by one of his own generals, allowing Alexander the Great to conquer the Achaemenid Empire. The Achaemenid Empire had a centralized government under the various emperors' rule.
http://www2.uncp.edu/home/rwb/lecture_ancient_civ.htm
http://www.gnosis.us.com/category/art/artifacts/artifacts-by-civilization/middle-eastern-artifacts/top-ten-achaemenid-empire-artifacts/
http://www.iranchamber.com/history/achaemenids/
Parthian (247 B.C.E. - 224 C.E.)
The Parthian Empire (Arsacid Empire) was formed after the fall of the Seleucid dynasty. It extended from the edge of southern Armenia to the tip of northern India. A semi-nomadic confederacy named "the Parni" in 250 BCE invaded the satrapy of Parthia, located by the Caspian Sea. In 250 BCE Arsaces led the Parni against the Seleucid and conquered the region. After that day they were
referred to as the Parthians.
This victory led to the establishment of the Parthian dynasty in 247 B.C.E. In this dynasty, all rulers adopted the title Arsaces. Under theruleof Mithradates I and all of his successors, the Parthian empire grew as it gradually absorbed the Seleucids, the Romans, and the Central Asian nomads. The Romans tried to over throw the Parthians by mirroring the methods of Alexander the Great but they failed and peace was later negotiated. The Parthian empire had a capital in Ctesiphon and they ruled for about 500 years until the rise of the Sassanians.
http://www.zonu.com/fullsize-en/2009-12-31-11529/The-Arsacid-or-Parthian-Empire-1-AD.html
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2054725/Off-limits-travel-destinations.html?image=3
http://babylon-coins.com/side6.html
http://archive.school.eb.com/eb/art-8533
referred to as the Parthians.
This victory led to the establishment of the Parthian dynasty in 247 B.C.E. In this dynasty, all rulers adopted the title Arsaces. Under theruleof Mithradates I and all of his successors, the Parthian empire grew as it gradually absorbed the Seleucids, the Romans, and the Central Asian nomads. The Romans tried to over throw the Parthians by mirroring the methods of Alexander the Great but they failed and peace was later negotiated. The Parthian empire had a capital in Ctesiphon and they ruled for about 500 years until the rise of the Sassanians.
http://www.zonu.com/fullsize-en/2009-12-31-11529/The-Arsacid-or-Parthian-Empire-1-AD.html
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2054725/Off-limits-travel-destinations.html?image=3
http://babylon-coins.com/side6.html
http://archive.school.eb.com/eb/art-8533
Sassanid (224 - 651 C.E.)
This empire was founded by Ardashir I. Little did he know it but this would be the last great Persia empire before the Arab conquests. Around 224 C.E. Ardashir overthrew the Parthians (the previous Persian Empire). The Sassanians viewed themselves as descendants of the Achaemids.
Shapur I was a great Sassanian emperor. Under his rule he had strengthened the government, produced new coins, and even converted the empire to Zoroastrianism. The Sassanid Empire had many clashes with Rome. In 260 CE Shapur captured emperor Valerian, the Emperor of the eastern half of Rome. (They would again meet over disputes of the Mesopotamian territory.) Under his reign, the empire extended from the Euphrates River to the Indus River. Shapur II gained control over the eastern Kushans and led campaigns against the Arabs. The Sassanians had to pay tribute to the Hephthalite Huns in the 5th century, and was a large factor to their downfall. The Sassanians clashed with the Byzantine Empire and weakened them greatly. This allowed Islamic Arab forces to easily over throw the empire and Yazdegerd III around 650.
http://www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/History/Sasanian/sasanid.htm
http://www.studyblue.com/notes/note/n/chp-1-3-study-notes/deck/3889959
http://www.iranchamber.com/history/sassanids/sassanids.php
http://www.crystalinks.com/Sassanid_Empire.html
Shapur I was a great Sassanian emperor. Under his rule he had strengthened the government, produced new coins, and even converted the empire to Zoroastrianism. The Sassanid Empire had many clashes with Rome. In 260 CE Shapur captured emperor Valerian, the Emperor of the eastern half of Rome. (They would again meet over disputes of the Mesopotamian territory.) Under his reign, the empire extended from the Euphrates River to the Indus River. Shapur II gained control over the eastern Kushans and led campaigns against the Arabs. The Sassanians had to pay tribute to the Hephthalite Huns in the 5th century, and was a large factor to their downfall. The Sassanians clashed with the Byzantine Empire and weakened them greatly. This allowed Islamic Arab forces to easily over throw the empire and Yazdegerd III around 650.
http://www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/History/Sasanian/sasanid.htm
http://www.studyblue.com/notes/note/n/chp-1-3-study-notes/deck/3889959
http://www.iranchamber.com/history/sassanids/sassanids.php
http://www.crystalinks.com/Sassanid_Empire.html
Problems along the Frontiers
Han China and the Xiongnu
Xiongnu were a constant threat to the Chinese. During the Han dynasty in the 5th century BCE, the Xiongnu first invaded. This led to the construction of the great wall of China.
Eventually, the Xiongnu formed a large confederacy under Chanyu. He saw himself as the mandate to Heaven. They had an army numbering up to 300,000 and attacked with bows and arrows. Their calvary over powered the Chinese chariots. These invasions led to the expanion of Han China into South east asia to try and supress the invasions.
In the Great Han-Xiongnu war, the Han led several expeditions under commander Wudi. By 89 c.e. the Han had completely dominated the Xiongnu and they fell due to internal civil wars.
http://www.history-of-china.com/han-dynasty/han-wu-di.html
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/ZhangQianTravels.jpg
http://archive.school.eb.com/eb/article-9041305
Gupta and the White Huns
In the 5th century, the White Huns invaded India. The Gupta empire was not prepared for any warring conflict and the Huns came in and gradually destroyed the Gupta. They invaded and destroyed the capital city Pataliputra, which reduced the once great city into a small village.
Toramana's son Mihirakula succeeded his rule. Like his father, he persecuted Buddhism and destroyed its monasteries. From Punjab, he attempted to reconquer Rajputana and Malwa. The Hunas were defeated by the Gupta forces led by Yasodharmana. After his death, Mihirakula seized the opportunity to invade India again. However, he was defeated by Narasimhagupta Baladitya and the Gupta. This defeat convinced Mihirakula to concentrate his efforts on ruling Punjab.
During the invasions, the Huns persecuted the Buddhists. They forced the Guptas to pay tribute up until their collapse in the mid 6th century.
http://www.ibiblio.org/britishraj/Jackson2/chapter12.html
http://www.silk-road.com/artl/heph.shtml
http://www.indianetzone.com/22/the_hun_invasion_its_effects.htm
Toramana's son Mihirakula succeeded his rule. Like his father, he persecuted Buddhism and destroyed its monasteries. From Punjab, he attempted to reconquer Rajputana and Malwa. The Hunas were defeated by the Gupta forces led by Yasodharmana. After his death, Mihirakula seized the opportunity to invade India again. However, he was defeated by Narasimhagupta Baladitya and the Gupta. This defeat convinced Mihirakula to concentrate his efforts on ruling Punjab.
During the invasions, the Huns persecuted the Buddhists. They forced the Guptas to pay tribute up until their collapse in the mid 6th century.
http://www.ibiblio.org/britishraj/Jackson2/chapter12.html
http://www.silk-road.com/artl/heph.shtml
http://www.indianetzone.com/22/the_hun_invasion_its_effects.htm
Romans & their Northern/Eastern Neighbors
The Roman-Persian wars occurred over a period of 700 years, beginning in the late Roman Republic and continuing even after the fall of Rome (Byzantine empire) They consisted of many battles separated by periods of peace. The empires fought over territory during the earlier wars but did little change to the borders.
The Romans first clashed with the Parthians from 53 B.C.E-226 C.E. The first of these wars were called the Mithridatic Wars, which took place from 82-63 B.C.E. The Romans' desire to conquer more territory drove the war. By the third war, Mithidrates and Tigranes had retreated deep into Armenia, and the Romans had taken most of Armenia, including Judea and Syria. This closed the gap between the Romans and the Parthian empire.
The Roman empire was divided into the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire under Diocletian. The Eastern Roman Empire (later known as the Byzantine Empire) was a strongly Christian kingdom under Constantine. In the Sassanid Empire, Shapur II ruled a Zoroastrian state. He persecuted Christians, adding a religious aspect to the territorial wars. Shapur aggressively fought against Rome from 337-363 C.E. The balance of power shifted in his advantage in 358, when he succeeded in conquering much territory. Emperor Julian was killed in Ctesiphon, and his successor disgracefully conceded five Roman provinces to the Sassanid empire
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/roem/hd_roem.htm
http://history-world.org/germanic_tribes.htm
http://www.stutzfamily.com/mrstutz/Rome/romenotes.htm